Table of Contents

Part One: The External History of the Germanic Languages

1. Indo-European Origins [21]

• a. 'Urheimat' [21]
• b. Relation between IE languages (Schleicher, Schmidt, Meillet) [21]
• c. Linguistic Substrata [23]

2. Indo-European Expansions [23]

• a. General [23]
• b. The Prairie Group [24]
• c. The Park Land Group [24]
• d. Kentum-Satem [25]
• e. Non-IE languages in Europe [25]

3. The Germanic Languages [25]

• a. The Germanic 'Urheimat' [25]
• b. Urgermanisch; Divisions of Germanic [26]

4. North Germanic [27]

• a. Territory [27]
• b. Chronology [27]

5. East Germanic [28]

• a. Home [28]
• b. Goths, name and home [28]
• c. History [29]
• d. Relation to Norse and West Germanic [30]

6. West Germanic [30]

• a. Expansion [30]
• b. Anglo-Frisian [31]
• c. Langobards [32]
• d. German and Dutch [32]
• e. German Dialects [33]

7. Chronology and Drift [33]

• a. General [33]
• b. 'Drift' in West Germanic [34]

Part Two: Phonology

CONSONANTISM

THE INDO-EUROPEAN CONSONANTS

8. Reconstruction [35]

9. Phonetic Law and Phonetic Drift [36]

10. Modes of Articulation [37]

• a. General [37]
• b. Pure Voiceless Stops [38]
• c. Pure Voiced Stops [38]
• d. Aspirated Voiceless Stops [38]
• e. Aspirated Voiced Stops [38]
• f. The Problem of bh dh gh and ph th kh [39]
• g. Not Voiced Aspirates, but Spirants [40]
• h. Summary [41]
• i. Symbols φ θ χ versus bh dh gh [41]

11. Places of Articulation [41]

• a. Labials [41]
• b. Dentals [42]
• c. 'Gutturals' [42]
• d. Kentum and Satem [43]

12. The Sibilant [45]

• a. s and z [45]
• b. Movable s [45]

13. Sonorous Consonants [45]

• a. General [45]
• b. Consonantic Function [46]
• c. Vocalic Function [46]

14. The Semi- Vowels [46]

THE GERMANIC CONSONANTS

A. The Consonant Shift

15. Lautverschiebung [47]

• a. General [47]
• b. Rask and Grimm [47]
• c. Uniformity of Shift [48]

16. The Fundamental Principle [49]

• a. Articulation of Stops [49]
• b. Articulation of Spirants [49]
• c. Fortes and Lenes [49]
• d. General Trend [50]
• e. Grimm's Diagram [51]
• f. Modified Diagram [51]

17. Cause and Time of the Consonant Shift [52]

• a. Relation to the Germanic Migrations [52]
• b. Time of the Shift [52]
• c. Principles of Relative Chronology [53]
• d. Restworter [54]
• e. Cause of the Shift, Standard Views [55]
• f. New Hypothesis [56]

The Germanic Shift

18. The IE Spirants, φ θ χ (bh dh gh) > Gmc. ƀ ð ȝ [57]

19. The IE Voiceless Stops, p t k > f þ ɧ [59]

20. Verner's Law [60]

• a. Facts and History of the Law [60]
• b. Chronology [62]
• c. Instances [63]
• d. Grammatical Change [64]

21. The IE Voiced Stops, b d g [68]

22. The Gmc. Consonant Lengthening [69]

23. The Labiovelars [71]

• a. Table of Gmc. Development [71]
• b. General Principle [72]
• c. Instances [72]

The Intermediate Shift

24. The Gmc. Voiced Spirants, ƀ ð ȝ [75]

• a. General [75]
• b. Germanic, Gothic, Norse [75]
• c. West Germanic [76]

The High German Shift

25. Chronology and Spread [78]

• a. Trend and Theoretical Result [78]
• b. Maps and Distribution [79]

26. Instances and Limitations [81]

B. Other Consonant Changes

27. The Gmc. Voiceless Spirants, f þ ɧ [82]

• a. Trend [82]
• b. þ [83]
• c. f [83]
• d. ɧ [83]

28. Rhotacism [84]

29. Consonant Groups [85]

• a. s-Combinations [85]
• b. Combinations with Nasals and Liquids [85]
• c. Gmc. ŋɧ [86]
• d. Go. þliuhan [87]
• e. Dissimilations of mn [87]

30. The West Germanic Consonant Lengthening [87]

31. Secondary Developments [89]

• a. Gothic [89]
• b. Norse [89]
• c. English [89]
• d. Old Saxon [90]
• e. Old High German [90]

C. The Semi-Vowels

32. Articulation [90]

33. Gmc. Developments [91]

• a. Initial j w [91]
• b. Medial j w [91]
• c. Holtzmann's Law [92]

VOCALISM

34. The Indo-European Vowels [93]

• a. The Old and the New Views [93]
• b. Instances, Long Vowels [94]
• c. Short Vowels [94]

35. The Indo-European Diphthongs [96]

36. The Germanic Vowel Shift [97]

• a. Other IE Languages [97]
• b. The Gmc. Trend [97]

37. The Germanic Long Vowels [99]

38. The Germanic Short Vowels [100]

• a. Unconditional and Conditional Changes [100]
• b. Notes [100]
• c. Instances [101]
• d. Shva secundum [102]
• e. Chronology [103]

39. The Germanic Diphthongs [103]

• a. Short Diphthongs [103]
• b. Long Diphthongs [104]

40. Monophthongization and Diphthongization [105]

• a. Monophthongization [105]
• b. Diphthongization [107]

41. Mutation [107]

• a. Nature of Mutation [107]
• b. Scope [109]
• c. Gothic [110]
• d. Norse [110]
• e. Breaking in Norse [110]
• f. English Mutation [111]
• g. Old Frisian [111]
• h. Old Saxon [112]
• i. Old High German [112]

42. Influence of Consonants [112]

• a. Nasals [112]
• b. Other Consonants [114]

Simple Vowels:

• c. Gothic [114]
• d. Norse [115]
• e. Old English [115]
• f. Old Frisian [116]
• g. Old Saxon [116]
• h. Old High German [116]

Diphthongs:

• i. Gothic [116]
• j. Old Norse [116]
• k. Old English etc. [116]
• i. Old High German [116]
• m. Prevention of Mutation [117]

ACCENT AND ITS EFFECTS

43. Indo-European and Germanic Accent [118]

• a. Stress and Pitch [118].
• b. The Gmc. Accent Shift [119]

Gradation

44. Ablaut [120]

45. Abtonung [121]

46. Abstufung [123]

• a. Its Nature [123]
• b. Light Bases [124]
• c. Lengthened Diphthongs [126]
• d. Heavy Bases [126]
• e. Diphthongal Heavy Bases [127]
• f. Dissyllabic Bases [128]

47. The Germanic Ablaut Series [129]

• a. Arrangement [129]
• b. Instances [[130]

Unstressed Syllables

48. Quantity of Final Syllables [132]

49. The Germanic Weakening of Unstressed Syllables [133]

A. Short Vowels

1. In Final Syllables

• a. The Loss of Morae [133]
• b. -a -e -o [133]
• c. -i -u [133]
• d. -j -w > -t -u [134]

2. In Medial Syllables

• e. General [135]
• f. -i- in Weak Preterits [135]
• g. Rückumlaut [135]
• h. Medial je [136]
• i. 3. Prefixes [136]

B. Long Vowels of Two Morae

• j. Single Vowels [136]
• k. Diphthongs [137]
• l. Medial Syllables [138]
• m. Prefixes [138]

C. Three Morae

• n. Gmc. Shortening [139]

D. Final Consonants

• o. Final Consonants [140]

50. Standardization of Quantity [140]

Part Three: Inflections

51. Word Structure [141]

• a. General [141]
• b. Determinants [141]
• c. Monophthongal Light Bases [143]
• d. Diphthongal Light Bases [143]
• e. Monophthongal Heavy Bases [143]
• f. Diphthongal Heavy Bases [144]

THE VERB

52. Tense and Aspect [144]

• a. General [144]
• b. IE Conditions [145]

THE STEMS

The Present

53. The Stem Classes [147]

• a. Sanskrit [147]
• b. Germanic [147]

54. The Germanic Present Types [148]

• a. Standardization [148]
• b. Durative Present [148]
• c. Aorist Presents [149]
• d. Verbs with j-Suffix [151]
• e. Germanic Strong Verbs with j-Suffix [152]
• f. Causatives (Class I W) [153]
• g. Class III W [154]
• h. Athematic Verbs [154]
• i. n-Suffixes [156]
• j. Nasal Infixes [157]
• k. Denominatives [157]

The Preterit

55. Strong and Weak Verbs [159]

The Strong Preterit

56. The Standard View [160]

• a. Strong Preterit and Perfect [160]
• b. Syncretism [160]

57. Syncretism in the Strong Preterit [162]

• a. Arguments against the Standard View [162]
• b. Aorist Forms in the Strong Preterit [164]

58. The Diphthongal Light Bases [164]

• a. Class I [165]
• b. Class II [166]
• c. Class III [167]

59. The Monophthongal Light Bases [170]

• a. Class IV [171]
• b. Class V [172]

60. The Monophthongal Heavy Bases [173]

• Class VI [173]

61. The Diphthongal Heavy Bases [175]

• Ablaut Conditions [175]

62. The 'Reduplicating' Verbs [176]

• a. Reduplicated Preterits [176]
• b. The NWGmc. Preterits without Reduplication [177]
• c. The Preterits of Class VI [178]
• d. The Diphthongal Heavy Bases [178]
• e. The Reduplication in Gothic [178]
• f. Monophthongal Heavy Bases in Class VII [179]
• g. Tables of Class VII [179]

63. Grammatical Change [182]

64. Later Developments [186]

65. The Preterit-Presents [187]

• a. Description [187]
• b. Class I [189]
• c. Class II [189]
• d. Class III [190]
• e. Class IV [191]
• f. Class V [192]
• g. Class VI [192]

The Weak Preterit

66. The Dental Suffix [193]

• a. The Classes [193]
• b. The Personal Endings [193]
• c. The Origin of the Dental Suffix [194]

67. The Connecting Vowel [199]

• a. Syncopation in Class I [199]
• b. Rückumlaut [200]
• c. Old English [201]
• d. Old Saxon [202]
• e. Old High German [202]
• f. Class II [203]
• g. Class III [203]

INFINITIVE AND PARTICIPLES

68. The Infinitive [204]

69. The Participles [205]

• a. The Present Participle [205]
• b. The Past Participle [205]

THE PERSONAL ENDINGS

70. Categories of the Verb [206]

• a. Aspects [206]
• b. Tenses [207]
• c. Modes [207]
• d. Genera Verbi [209]
• e. Numbers [209]

71. Types of Endings [209]

72. The Present Active [210]

• a. Endings of the Indicative [210]
• b. Changes of the Stem Vowel [214]
• c. The Optative [216]

73. The Preterit [217]

• a. Indicative [217]
• b. Optative [218]

74. The Passive [219]

75. Anomalous Verbs [219]

• a. 'Be' [219]
• b. 'Do' [222]
• c. 'Stand' and 'Go' [223]
• d. 'Will' [224]

THE NOUN

THE STEMS

76. Gradation [225]

77. Classes [226]

• a. The Noun Suffixes [226]
• b. The Germanic Noun Classes [227]

78. Categories [228]

• a. Gender [228]
• b. Number [229]
• c. Case [230]

79. Endings [231]

• a. General [231]

Singular:

• b. Nominative [232]
• c. Accusative [233]
• d. Genitive [233]
• e. Dative [234]
• f. Locative [235]
• g. Instrumental [235]
• h. Vocative [236]

Plural:

• i. Nominative [236]
• j. Neuter [237]
• k. Accusative [238]
• l. Genitive [239]
• m. Ablative, Dative, Instrumental [240]

THE GERMANIC DECLENSIONS

VOWEL STEMS

80. The o-Stems [241]

• a. Pure o-Stems [241]
• b. jo-Stems [242]
• c. wo-Stems [243]

81. The ā-Stems [244]

• a. Pure ā-Stems [244]
• b. jā-Stems [244]

82. The i-Stems [245]

83. The u-Stems [247]

CONSONANT STEMS

84. The n-Stems [249]

• a. 'Weak Declension' [250]
• b. The Suffix Vowel [250]
• c. Nom. Sing. [251]
• d. The Oblique Cases [251]
• e. The Neuter [253]
• f. manna, wato [254]
• g. The in-Stems [254]

85. The r-Stems : [255]

86. The s-Stems [256]

87. The Root-Stems [256]

• a. Plain Consonant Stems [256]
• b. 'Man' [258]

88. The nt-Stems [258]

ADJECTIVE

89. Stems and Declensions [259]

• a. General [259]
• b. Germanic Weak and Strong Declension [260]

90. Paradigms [261]

• a. The Strong Declension [261]
• b. The Weak Declension [264]
• c. Adverbs [264]

91. Comparison [265]

• a. The Comparative [265]
• b. The Superlative [265]

THE PRONOUN

92. Characteristics [266]

93. The Demonstrative Pronoun [267]

• a. so-/to- [267]
• b. Compounds of so-/to- [271]
• c. kio-/ko- [272]
• d. eno-/ono- [273]

94. The Anaphorical Pronoun [274]

95. The Pronominal Endings of the Strong Adjective [275]

96. The Relative Pronoun [276]

97. The Interrogative and Indefinite Pronoun [278]

• a. kwo/kwi [278]
• b. Derivatives [279]

98. The Personal Pronoun [279]

• a. Paradigms [279]
• b. The Singular [280]
• c. The Plural [282]
• d. The Dual [284]
• e. The Possessive Pronoun [285]

THE NUMERALS

99. The Cardinals [285]

• a. Forms [285]
• b. Declension [291]

100. The Ordinals [292]

Specimen Texts [294]

Bibliographical Notes [299]

Index of Words [309]